目錄把推動澳門科技創新,作為拓展經濟適度多元的突破口 ............澳門經濟學會課題組. 1建立夾屋制度 構建置業階梯 ......................................................澳門經濟學會課題組. 17澳門特區政府抗疫紓困經濟政策效果簡析 ...........................................陳家良、施純銘. 31後疫情期青年就業問題及政策建議 ......................................................... 郝家樑、史芸琳. 46Development of Green Finance in Macau, With Special Reference to the Experience of Luxembourg and Hong Kong .............................................. TSE Hon-Kong, Vincent 58淺談疫後澳門推動發展夜間經濟 .........................................................................余渭恆. 88人力資本對勞動力薪酬、薪酬差異及經濟融合的影響︰文獻綜述 ...................柯麗香. 96區域合作視角下澳門及橫琴休閒經濟發展研究 ..................................................唐秀麗 110第十屆澳珠合作發展論壇主旨演講──兩地人才協同發展是珠澳深度合作的關鍵抓手 .......................................................................................................................黃智饒. 119第十屆澳珠合作發展論壇主旨演講──澳珠醫療大健康產業合作發展探索 ....鄭健鋒. 129第十屆澳珠合作發展論壇主旨演講──合力深耕新材料,珠澳攜手共發展 ....雷 震. 134第十屆澳珠合作發展論壇主旨演講──澳珠合作共建創新走廊 ........................呂開顏. 140澳門經濟學會2020年下半年會務活動 ............................................................................. 144澳門經濟大事回顧 ............................................................................................................ 150澳門主要經濟數據 ............................................................................................................ 156
55學位可免息推遲支付課程費用,優惠期自入學起長達3年。此外,新加坡國立大學提供1,000個就業崗位和培訓名額,其中包括200個校內帶薪全職崗位。而南洋理工大學,也提供數百個帶薪培訓名額,為符合條件的畢業生提供培訓津貼。15新加坡政府亦向收入因疫情而受到影響的本地公民和永久居民提供疫情薪金補貼16,向因疫情衝擊遭解僱或終止勞務合約的人士,提供每月最多800新加坡元的援助,長達三個月,並協助相關人士尋找工作或提供就業培訓。另外,新加坡政府推出招聘獎勵計劃,鼓勵僱主聘請更多本地職員、應屆畢業生或轉職人士,企業每聘用一位新加坡籍員工,政府將代支付員工高達25%的薪金,若聘用員工年齡為40歲或以上,政府將會支付多達50%,為期1年。(三)外地就業援助措施對澳門的啟示綜觀中國台灣及新加坡的就業援助措施,尤其對青年就業的援助工作,對澳門有以下啟示作用:第一,目前澳門就業援助工作焦點及策略較為模糊。政府促就業的措施主要以勞工局的職業配對及“帶津培訓計劃”對接為主,其所面向對象廣泛,包括失業人士、青年及應屆畢業生,與外地精準培訓及導向配對政策有所不同。應徵者可能源自不同的社會階層,擁有不同的學歷及自身工作經驗,而“帶津培訓計劃”所提供的課程不全面,社會對培訓內容不清晰,對特定人士缺乏吸引力,應參考“先僱後訓”的策略推出援助措施。第二,澳門鼓勵企業招聘的措拖不足。現時,社會保障基金的《就業輔助及培訓規章》下設的“聘用初次求職青年之津貼”及“使失業者就業津貼”鼓勵企業招聘的吸引力遠低於外地水平,相關的限制亦較大,在疫後經濟情況中對企業起不到吸引作用。第三,協助居民提升綜合競爭力的措拖不足。政府未有利用高等教育協助及吸引居民增值,減緩就業市場緊張及提升綜合競爭力。政府應為學生提供免15 《新加坡“回爐培訓”緩解就業壓力》,《中國教育報》,2020年8月28日3版。16 《疫情薪金補貼》,新加坡Support Go Where網頁,https://www.supportgowhere.gov.sg/?lang=chinese
58Development of Green Finance in Macau, With Special Reference to the Experience of Luxembourg and Hong Kong1TSE Hon-Kong, Vincent21. Development of Green FinanceGreen finance refers to capital raising and financial investments flowing into projects, products and companies that support the development of a more sustainable, low-carbon and climate-resilient economy. Green finance covers a wide range of environmental and sustainability objectives, including clean energy; pollution control; green buildings, transportation and infrastructure; energy efficiency; sustainable resource management; and environmental services, such as waste management and sustainable forestry. A turning point in the development of green finance is the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change hosted and chaired by France in 2015. The outcome of COP21 was the adoption of the Paris Agreement, signed by 195 countries, to address climate change and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement presents a newly calibrated political ambition, requiring countries to implement their national climate plans as well as increase their ambitions over time. To achieve these goals, finance on a massive scale is required. In February 2016, finance ministers and central bank governors of the G20 major economies committed to exploring ways to raise the US$90 trillion of investments required over the next 15 years to achieve global sustainable development and climate objectives. 1 This article is an abridged and updated version of a longer research paper with the same title funded by “IEEM Academic Research Grant 2019” of the Institute of European Studies of Macau (IEEM).2 Vincent Tse is Vice President of Sustainable Development Association which is registered in Macau. He has been teaching full time (1988-1995), then part time (1996-2020) for Economics Department of University of Macau.
591.1 Green Finance ProductsGreen products have been promoted for decades. Emissions trading was first considered in the 1960s. Creation of the modern green finance sector began with issuance of the world’s first green bonds in 2007. Green finance products include green bonds, green loans, green funds, green insurance, green stock indices, …. etc.Because of their relative liquidity, high profile and simple structuring, green bonds are by far the most important green finance product. According to Climate Bonds Initiative (CBI), issuance of green bonds has been growing rapidly over the past few years. Adherents range from world-renowned corporates like Apple, Starbucks, to the World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), Deutsche Bank, and Allianz. But green finance products go far beyond green bonds as they are increasingly sought by investors who once passively divested of high-carbon assets (e.g. oil and gas stocks) but now actively seek to invest in low-carbon products. Momentum in the sector is likely to increase following COP21’s commitment to a two-degree ceiling. Countries also submitted their climate action plans at Paris in 2015 and must begin to implement them. Green finance will be a key to their realisation. 1.2 Global Development of Green FinanceDeveloped by Z/Yen and first published in March 2018, Global Green Finance Index (GGFI) serves as a valuable reference for policy and investment decision-makers. The fifth edition of the index (GGFI 5), which included 67 major financial centres around the world, was published in March 2020. The index provides evaluations of the depth and quality of the green finance offerings of these financial centres.
60Table 1-1 shows that all of top 10 cities are western European cities. Luxembourg ranks 4th. In Asia, the highest ranked city is Singapore (22), followed by Beijing (23), Guangzhou (24), Shanghai (25=), and Tokyo (30). Macau was not included in the study.Table 1-1 Top 30 Cities of Global Green Finance Index (GGFI 5)Rank City Rating1 Amsterdam 10062 Zurich 9903 London 9864 Luxembourg 9775 Copenhagen 9756 Stockholm 9707 Paris 9478 Hamburg 9339 Geneva 92810 Vienna 92411 Oslo 91312 Brussels 91213 Munich 91014 San Francisco 90815 Montreal 90716 Sydney 90117 Toronto 89918 Vancouver 89619 Frankfurt 88820 Edinburgh 88621 Casablanca 88522 Singapore 88123 Beijing 88024 Guangzhou 87325= Tel Aviv 86725= Shanghai 86727= Los Angeles 86627= Jersey 86629 Melbourne 86530 Tokyo 859Source : The Global Green Finance Index 5, official web.
612. Green Finance : Challenges and Theoretical FoundationG20 Green Finance Study Group (2016) identified five types of challenges to green finance, which can be regarded as the theoretical foundation for green finance development.2.1 Externalities The most fundamental challenge is how to appropriately and cost-effectively internalize environmental externalities. Such externalities can be positive for green investments as their benefits accrue to third parties, and negative when polluting investments cause harm on third parties. Difficulties in internalizing these externalities result in under-investment in “green” activities and over-investment in “brown” activities. 2.2 Maturity MismatchInadequate supply of long-term funding relative to the demand for funding by long-term projects have sometimes resulted in the lack of infrastructure investment, including green infrastructure projects. Financing of long-term green infrastructure projects relies heavily on bank lending, while banks are constrained in providing sufficient long-term loans due to relatively short tenor of liabilities. 2.3 Lack of Clarity in Green Finance In many countries and markets, the lack of clarity as to what constitutes green finance activities and products can be an obstacle for investors, companies and banks seeking to identify opportunities for green investing. Without appropriate definitions of
62green finance, which is the basis for internal budgeting, accounting and performance measurement for financial institutions, it is difficult to allocate financial resources for green projects and assets.2.4 Asymmetric Information Many investors are interested in investing in green projects/assets but the lack of disclosure of environmental information by companies increases the search costs for green assets and thereby reduces their attractiveness. For example, if investors do not have information about their portfolio companies’ environmental performance (such as emissions, and energy and water consumption), they cannot effectively identify and proactively finance green companies as well as assess and manage environmental risks. 2.5 Inadequate Analytical Capabilities The understanding of financial implications of environmental risks by financial institutions is still immature. Many banks and institutional investors have yet to develop the capacity to identify and quantify the credit and market risks that may arise from their environmental exposure, and therefore often underestimate the risks of “brown” investments and overestimate the risk profile of green investment opportunities. This led to an overinvestment in polluting projects and an underinvestment in green projects. 3. Green BondsGreen bonds are debt instruments used to finance green projects that deliver environmental benefits. The proceeds of green bonds are dedicated for “green projects”, the purposes of which should be transparent to investors.
633.1. Development of Green Bond MarketThe green bond market kicked off in 2007 with the issuance from supranational organizations European Investment Bank (EIB) and World Bank. From 2007-2012, the market was mainly characterized by the issuance of green bonds by supranational organizations along with a few governmental entities and municipalities and national development banks. In 2013 and 2014, there were more active participation from private sector issuers, including corporates and banks. November 2014 was a turning point when the first corporate green bond issued by Vasakronan, a Swedish property company. Subsequently, large corporates like Apple, ICBC, Credit Agricole, Bank of China, Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway, SNCF, Berlin Hyp, and Engie became green bond issuers. 3.2. Benefits of Green Bond MarketsG20 Green Finance Study Group (2016) pointed out that the green bond market can offer several important benefits for green projects and investors:(a) providing an additional source of green financing to bank lending and equity financing, and also a source of funding for bank lending; (b) enabling more long-term financing for green projects, especially in countries where demand for green infrastructure investment is high but supply of long-term bank loans is limited; (c) providing incentives for issuers to use bond proceeds on green projects for reputational gains; (d) upgrading issuers’ environmental risk management process due to their commitment to “green” disclosure; and (e) providing a class of green assets for investors, especially long-term and responsible investors, and opportunities for bond investors to engage with issuers on sustainability issues related to the financed projects.
643.3 Current Developments of Green Bond MarketsIssuance of green bonds has been growing rapidly over the past few years. In 2014, USD37.0 billion of green bonds were issued globally. The figure jumped to USD257.5 billion in 2019 from issuance of 1,788 green bonds (Table 3-1), representing a 47.4% of average annual growth over the 2014-2019 period. Table 3-1 Global Green Bond Issuance, 2014-Sep 2020(Unit : USD billion)2014 37.02015 41.82016 87.22017 162.12018 167.32019 257.52020 (Jan-Sep) 162.9Source : Climate Bonds Initiative, official webOf the USD257.5 billion green bonds issued in 2019, 45 % came from Europe, 25% from Asia Pacific, and 23% from North America. The USA, China and France topped the country rankings in 2019. US issuers contributed USD51.3 billion (19.9% of global total), whereas their Chinese and French counterparts issued USD31.3 billion (12.1%) and USD30.1 billion (11.7%), respectively.
653.3.1 Use of Proceeds by SectorsTable 3-2 Use of Proceeds by sectors in 2019Energy 31%Buildings 30%Transport 20%Water 9%Waste 4%Land Use 3%Industry 1%Information, and Communication Technologies (ICT) 1%Adaptation and Resilience 1%Total 100%Source : Climate Bonds Initiative, 2019 Green Bond Market Summary, Feb 2020.The Energy and Buildings sectors dominated green proceeds allocation, with both sectors having a similar share of some 30% (Table 3-2). Excluding Fannie Mae, which allocated USD18.7 billion to buildings, KfW tops both sectors. Noor Energy, MidAmerican Energy and Ørsted represented the top issuance in the energy sector, while the Republic of France, the European Investment Bank, the DSTA and Vasakronan were prominent issuers for “Low Carbon Buildings”.Transport and Water followed with 20% and 9% market shares, respectively. SNCF (USD4.3 billion), Société du Grand Paris (USD3.6 billion) and the Republic of Chile (USD2.2 billion) represented top issuers in the transport sector. Fannie Mae (USD4 billion) ranked first in the water sector as both its “Green Rewards” and “Green Building Certifications” programmes target water efficiency improvements. After Fannie Mae, ICBC (USD2 billion), the DSTA (USD1.6 billion) and Engie (USD825 million) were the top issuers in the water sector. Waste, land use, industry, information and communication technologies (ICT), and adaptation and resilience represented the remaining share of the market, accounting for around 10% of total 2019 issuance.
664. Development of Green Finance in Hong KongAs Macau is planning to develop its green finance sector, the closest model it can study is probably Hong Kong, the other Special Administrative Region of China. Both Hong Kong and Macau are free ports without capital control. There are free flow of goods and capital, and relatively free flow of labor between these two city economies.The development of green finance in Hong Kong is a few years ahead of Macau. Therefore, a study on development of Macau’s green finance should begin with an examination of development experience of Hong Kong.4.1 Market DevelopmentIn June 2015, the first labelled green bond by a Chinese company – wind energy firm Xinjiang Goldwind Science & Technology – was issued in Hong Kong. The US$300 million green bond, with a three-year tenor, was nearly five times over-subscribed. Hang Seng Corporate Sustainability Index Series Launched in 2010, the Hang Seng Corporate Sustainability Index Series is the first index series to focus exclusively on Environmental, Social and Corporate Governance (ESG) performance of Hong Kong and Mainland China stocks. Investor network For more than a decade, Hong Kong has been home to the Association for Sustainable & Responsible Investment in Asia (ASrIA) and the Asia Investor Group on Climate Change, an initiative set up and run by ASrIA. In 2015, ASrIA joined forces with the United Nations-supported Principles for Responsible Investment (PRI), making Hong Kong the Asian headquarters of the PRI. Green ReviewersMany internationally renowned green reviewers have a presence in Hong Kong to provide coverage of onshore or offshore green bonds issued by Mainland issuers.
67By setting up an operation in Hong Kong, these reviewers can combine on-the-ground knowledge of the Mainland market with their robust and internationally recognised green assessment approach, thereby facilitating a more efficient assessment process while giving confidence to international green bond investors.4.2 Regulatory DevelopmentsHong Kong Exchange – ESG reporting In January 2016, following consultation with the industry, Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing Limited (HKEX) strengthened its ESG Guide in the listing rules. It requires issuers to state in their annual or ESG reports whether they have complied with the ‘comply or explain’ provisions set out in the ESG Guide. Listed companies are required to report, on a ‘comply or explain’ basis, general disclosures and a series of defined key performance indicators (KPIs) in the environmental category. Securities and Futures Commission – Principles of Responsible Ownership consultation In March 2015, the Securities and Futures Commission (SFC) launched a consultation on proposed Principles of Responsible Ownership, the purpose of which are to provide guidance to investors on how they should fulfil their ownership responsibilities in relation to their investment in a listed company. In March 2016, the SFC issued its findings from the consultation, specifically highlighting the responsibilities of investors to engage on ESG issues.4.3 Policy DevelopmentsThe Hong Kong government has over the years introduced green finance-related policies, for example, the Cleaner Production Partnership Programme, and the Carbon Footprint Repository which was launched by the Environment Bureau in 2014. The Financial Secretary’s Budget Speech 2016-17 made reference to green finance and stated
68that the government will strengthen efforts to publicise its competitive capital markets and highlight Hong Kong’s edge in developing green financial products. Two subsequent developments have further reinforced Hong Kong’s bond and green bond markets: (a) Bond ConnectIn July 2017, Hong Kong launched the Bond Connect, which quickly became international investors’ default channel for investing in the China Interbank Bond Market, as it allows them to use the Hong Kong trading and clearing platform, and to continue their existing legal framework, counterparty arrangements and internal practices. (b) Offshore bonds by Mainland issuerIn 2017, Mainland issuers issued more than USD220 billion foreign currency bonds, a majority of which were issued in Hong Kong. In addition, many Mainland issuers have issued RMB “dim sum” bonds in Hong Kong. Mainland issuers have been attracted to Hong Kong due to its deep market and familiar regulatory and operating environment. The number of issuance in Hong Kong is expected to grow further, given the increasing offshore funding needs of Mainland enterprises seeking to expand abroad under, for example, the Belt and Road Initiative.The Financial Secretary announced in the 2018-19 Budget a series of supportive measures including: • Pilot Bond Grant Scheme, to subsidise bond issuance in Hong Kong, including green bonds. • Green Bond Grant Scheme, to subsidise the use of the Hong Kong Quality Assurance Agency (HKQAA) Green Certification Scheme. • The HKD100 billion Government Green Bond Programme, to create demonstrative effect to attract Mainland and international green issuers and investors to Hong Kong.• Enhancement of the Qualifying Debt Instrument scheme, to provide tax concession for bond investment in Hong Kong.
694.4 Certification by HKQAASupported by the Hong Kong Government, HKQAA has developed the Green Certification Scheme, with reference to a number of widely recognised international standards. 4.5 Green Bond IssuanceAccording to “Hong Kong Green Bond Market Briefing 2019” compiled by CBI, USD2.6 billion of green bonds were issued in Hong Kong in 2019, and the cumulative issuance has reached USD7.7 billion overall.4.6 Government Issuance To reinforce its commitment to promote sustainable development and to develop Hong Kong into a leading hub for green finance, the Hong Kong SAR Government issued its inaugural green bond in May 2019, amounting to USD1 billion and a tenor of 5 years. The Green Bond has been assigned credit ratings of AA+ by S&P Global Ratings and AA+ by Fitch.Following a global roadshow covering Hong Kong, London, Paris, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Boston, New York and Singapore, the Green Bond attracted orders exceeding USD4 billion, which was more than 4 times the issuance size. The Green Bond is subsequently listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the London Stock Exchange. The bond proceeds will be credited to the capital works reserve fund to finance or refinance public works’ projects that provide environmental benefits and support the sustainable development of Hong Kong. These projects are related to water and waste water management, waste management and resource recovery, green buildings, and energy efficiency and conservation.
704.7 Sustainable and Green ExchangeIn June 2020, HKEX announced its plan to launch the HKEX Sustainable and Green Exchange (STAGE). STAGE will provide investors with access to a comprehensive database of sustainable and green investment options that are available on Hong Kong’s securities markets. It will also act as an education and advocacy platform, promoting knowledge sharing and stakeholder engagement in sustainable finance.5. Development of Green Finance in Luxembourg5.1 Luxembourg as an International Financial CentreUnited Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Finance Initiative (2018) outlined the key features of Luxembourg’s financial centre: Luxembourg is the second largest fund centre in the world and the most popular domicile for Undertakings for Collective Investment in Transferable Securities (UCITS). Luxembourg is the leading hub for global fund distribution and international investors. It handles 65% of distribution of cross-border funds worldwide and funds are registered in more than 70 countries. Around 27% of all investment funds in the EU are domiciled in Luxembourg – roughly 4,000 umbrella funds with 14,700 sub-funds, and net assets of €4.2 trillion as of April 2018. Luxembourg has a performing securitization framework, allowing transformation of predictable cash flows into a vast range of investable securities. The Luxembourg Stock Exchange (LuxSE) lists more than 35,000 securities in 59 currencies from approximately 2,300 issuers. 26% of all bonds listed in the EU are listed at LuxSE including sovereign bonds from 17 EU Member States.
71 Luxembourg has €360 billion in assets under management (AUM) in private banking, with 60% of clients from the EU, and 40% from the rest of the world. Luxembourg is a hub for European life insurance assets, with large national and international insurance and reinsurance companies managing €21 billion of written premiums. 75% of the Luxembourg financial centre’s income comes from international customers. Of the 46,000 people working in Luxembourg’s financial sector, 81% are of non-Luxembourg origin. Luxembourg is home to the European Investment Bank and the European Investment Fund, investing roughly €80 billion per year in the European and global economy. Luxembourg increasingly plays the role of a gateway from and to China. Chinese banks present in Luxembourg not only serve China-based clients (enabling them to invest in Europe), but also provide European clients with the expertise and opportunity to invest in China. The Luxembourg Stock Exchange’s Chinese domestic Green Bond Channel bridges the information gap between Chinese issuers and international investors.5.2 Luxembourg Stock Exchange (LuxSE)LuxSE specialises primarily in the listing of international bonds, in which it ranks first in Europe. Luxembourg has maintained a dominant position in European bond issues with approximately 40% of all cross-border securities in Europe listed in Luxembourg. Over 70 countries list at least some of their sovereign debt in Luxembourg. Luxembourg is also a preferred debt market for supranational entities such as the European Bank for Reconst ruct ion and Development , European
72Commission, European Investment Bank (EIB), and World Bank. In 2007, the LuxSE was the first stock exchange in the world to list a bond labelled green, i.e. a “climate awareness bond” issued by EIB. 5.3 Luxembourg Green Exchange (LGX)Luxembourg is building a global reputation as a green finance centre. According to the latest Global Green Finance Index (GGFI 5) released in March 2020 (Table 1-1), Luxembourg ranked fourth globally, after Amsterdam, Zurich, and London.In September 2016, LuxSE became the first stock exchange globally to introduce a platform for green financial instruments – the Luxembourg Green Exchange (LGX). LGX gathers issuers that dedicate 100% of the raised funding to green investments. It requires green securities to adhere to strict eligibility criteria, including: (a) Declaring the security green, based on ICMA’s Green Bond Principles (GBP) or CBI taxonomy, or equivalent. (b) Clear disclosure that the proceeds are exclusively used for financing or refinancing projects that are 100% green, according to the GBP or CBI eligibility taxonomy. (c) Issuer’s commitment to provide both independent ex-ante external review and ex-post reporting. As of January 2018, LGX accounted for 50% of the world’s green bond market, which represents 1% of the global debt market. 5.4 LuxSE’s Growing Connections with ChinaThe first contact between LuxSE and the Chinese financial industry dated back to 1986, when the Bank of China listed its first international bond on the LuxSE. China subsequently listed its international bonds on the LuxSE in 1994.
73The next major development happened in 2011 when China decided to open up its currency market, which meant RMB could be used for international financial deals outside of China. That same year the LuxSE listed the first so-called Dim Sum bond outside greater China. This led to frequent interactions which developed over the following years, especially in the green bond market.In 2017, LuxSE established its first Green Bond Channel in partnership with the Shanghai Stock Exchange. Since then, opportunities were created for investors outside China. The cooperation between the two exchanges focuses on providing important information in English about Chinese green bonds to international investors, bridging the gap between the Chinese bond market and potential international investors.Subsequently, LuxSE also signed an agreement to extend the Channel to green bonds listed on the Shenzhen Exchange. This further enabled international investors to diversify their sustainable investment portfolios getting access to securities denominated in RMB.5.5 LuxSE’s Growing Connections with MacauOn 13 January 2020 LuxSE signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Chongwa (Macao) Financial Asset Exchange Co., Ltd. (MOX) in Macau. The agreement marks the beginning of a cooperation between the two exchanges, with a specific focus on promoting cross-border investment and liquidity for offshore RMB-denominated financial products, as well as a move to the increasing importance of the financial developments in the Greater Bay Area. Mex Zhang, Executive Chairman and President of MOX, remarked, “this is not only a step forward for MOX’s internationalization, but also a key step for MOX, as a financial infrastructure in Macau, to actively cooperate with an important European partner to promote the development of the Macao bond market and push forward Macau’s diversified economy.”
74A week later, on 21 Jan 2020, MOX visited LuxSE to discuss further cooperation of the two exchanges. A possible move is cross listing of bonds.6. Development of Green Finance in Macau6.1 Development of Bond Market in Macau.Bond market was not active in Macau. Financial institutions in Macau have occasionally issued bonds to raise capital. The first “lotus bond”, or RMB-denominated bond issued in Macau came in February 2018 with the issuance of RMB4 billion by Bank of China Macau Branch.However, listing and trading of these bonds are not possible before the establishment of MOX. Established in 2018, MOX is the first entity authorised in Macau to perform debt securities registration, custody, settlement and clearing services. The first financial products listed were a HKD-denominated bond of Luso Bank and a MOP-denominated bond of Bank of China Macau Branch. As of end of 2019, 18 bonds were listed, in which 5 were issued in Macau (Table 6-1).The first time the Macau general public was exposed to bond issuance was when China issued RMB2 billion of treasury bonds in July 2019, which was the first offshore issuance of treasury bonds in Macau. China’s Ministry of Finance and Macau’s government said in a joint statement that the issuance “supports Macau’s financial development, … and push forward the diversification of Macau’s economy, and represents a milestone in the development of Macau’s RMB market . … More RMB bonds will be issued in Macau which would strengthen financial cooperation between the mainland and Macau.”
75Table 6-1. Bonds Issued/Listed by MOX, 2018-2019Issuer Maturity Issue/List DatePrincipal AmountCoupon Rate1 Luso Bank (Macau) Perpetual Issue & list 7 Dec 2018 HKD 1.668 bn 8.00%2 Luso Bank (Macau) Perpetual Issue & list 21 Dec 2018 HKD 356 mn 8.00%3Bank of China (Macau Branch)2 years List 12 Dec 2018 MOP 3 bn 3.00%4 Greenland Holding 364 days List 12 Apr 2019 USD 200 mn 6.375%5China Agricultural Development Bank3 years List 22 May 2019 RMB 1 bn 3.23%6 TUS Holdings 1 year List 19 Jun 2019 USD 550 mn 6.95%7 Ministry of Finance, PRC 3 years Issue & list 4 Jul 2019 RMB 1.7 bn 3.05%8 Ministry of Finance, PRC 2 years Issue & list 26 Jul 2019 RMB 300 mn 3.30%9Industrial & Commercial Bank (Macau)10 years List 18 Oct 2019 USD 500 mn 2.875%10China Agricultural Development Bank5 years List 7 Nov 2019 RMB 3 bn 3.40%11China Agricultural Development Bank3 years List 7 Nov 2019 RMB 2.5 bn 3.14%12Hong Kong International (Qingdao) Company Ltd3 years List 12 Nov 2019 RMB 300 mn 3.9%13Eastern Creation II Investment3 years List 27 Nov 2019 RMB 1 bn 3.4%14 Zhuhai Da Heng Qin 3 years List 28 Nov 2019 USD 450 mn 3.8%15 Zhuhai Da Heng Qin 2 years List 28 Nov 2019 RMB 800 mn 4.6%16 Huafa Group 364 days Issue & list 4 Dec 2019 USD 200 mn 3.7%17China State Construction Finance (Cayman) III LtdPerpetual List 6 Dec 2019 USD 500 mn 4.00%18 Tianfeng Securities 3 years List 10 Dec 2019 USD 200 mn 4.30%Source : Chongwa (Macao) Financial Asset Exchange Co Ltd, official web
766.2 First and Award-winning Green Bond Issuance in MacauThe starting point of Macau’s green finance development at the business level was October 2019 when Bank of China (BOC), Macau Branch issued US$959.9 million equivalent multi-tranche and multi-currency bonds. This transaction involves three tranches of bonds denominated in RMB, USD and Euro with tenors of two to three years. The three tranches are certified as green by CBI.This launch was the first bonds in Asia to adopt the Secured Overnight Financing Rate (SOFR), a key milestone for issuers in the region looking to replace London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR). In the “Asiamoney China Green Finance Awards 2020” announced on 30 June 2020, Asiamoney awarded “Green Deal of the Year” to this deal. Asiamoney remarked:“SOFR is one of the top candidates to replace LIBOR after the end of 2021. …. but so far, there has been little issuance. Until Bank of China’s deal, not a single Asian issuer had linked a bond to the rate. It was a sign of the growing maturity of the green-bond market that the issuer did not opt to sell a conventional deal to test demand for SOFR-linked notes. Instead, it pushed ahead with a deal that advanced the green-bond and the wider market. …. Bank of China scored another first: this was the first green bond sold in Macau. …. The proceeds will be used to provide green loans to Chinese domestic corporations in areas of green transportation, green energy and sewage handling systems.”6.3 Government PositionsAccording to the “Outline Development Plan for the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area” released in February 2019, the Central Government of the People’s Republic of China stated that:
77“…. To support Macao in developing special financial products and services such as leasing, explore Macao’s development taking account of complementarity with nearby regions, and study the feasibility of establishing in Macao a securities market denominated and cleared in RMB, a green finance platform and a Sino-Lusophone countries financial services platform. …..”To study the feasibility of establishing a green finance platform in Macau, Chau and Lei of the Monetary Authority of Macau (AMCM) published a study on “Green Finance and Its Implications for Macao” in July 2019. They put forward seven remarks and/or suggestions for future development of green finance in Macau:a. Increase green elements in traditional intermediary servicesMacao banks could be encouraged to develop green loans as a starting point to mainstream green finance. Through education and training, ESG factors could gradually be integrated into the operational and management framework of the local financial industry to improve its environmental-related risk management, thus enhancing environmental-friendly investments and reducing polluting investments. b. Develop green project finance along the “Belt and Road” and the “Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA)”Green infrastructure, ecological and watershed management, high-end green technology will bring about huge financing needs for green projects. Therefore, through engaging in cross-border green credit business, local banks can actively support the construction of the green “Belt and Road” and develop green project financing in the GBA.c. Develop green financial leasing for Portuguese Speaking Countries in the medium term. This strategy not only avoids fierce competition with neighbouring jurisdictions, but also adds special features to green finance and appropriately market-positioning financial leasing in Macao. It leads Macao to its unique advantage and a differentiated
78development from neighbouring jurisdictions. d. Enrich the contents of wealth management business by providing green financial products and servicesLocal banks and insurance companies could introduce overseas green investment products, making green financial products an important element in Macao’s wealth management business. e. Cultivate local supply of green financial products. In the medium to long term, based on established green bond principles, the authorities would further study the desirability of issuing green bonds in Macao while evaluating feasible solutions. With a view to developing into a World Centre of Tourism and Leisure, Macao could issue green bonds, raising long-term funding for local environmental projects like low-carbon transport, new green buildings, existing building retrofits and marine environmental protection.f. Promote capacity building in green financeThis includes the follow-ups of the green project certification and assessment mechanism, the disclosure of environmental information, relevant policies of countries across the world to incentivise green investment and the development of voluntary principles so as to enhance the capacity of the local financial system to mainstream green finance. g. Professional trainingTo train local financial practitioners to increase their abilities to assess environmental cost/benefit, and to carry out relevant risk analysis and performance reporting of green projects. 7. What Macau Can Learn from Luxembourg?People like to draw comparisons between Macau and Luxembourg because both are small in size, with small yet similar populations, and their per capita incomes rank
79among the highest in the world (Table 7-1). Based on Human Development Index compiled by United Nations Development Programme, both rank in the “very high” category. And both of them practice continental law.Table 7-1 Comparisons Between Macau and LuxembourgMacau LuxembourgLand Area (sq. km) 33 2570Population (2019) 676,100 628,000Per capita (nominal) GDP, 2018 (in US$) 86,365(2nd)114,341(1st)Human Development Index 0.914 (2017)(very high)0.909 (2018)(very high)Legal system Continental Law Continental LawTo develop its bond and green bond markets, there are a few things Macau can learn from Luxembourg:(a) To Specialize in some Financial Sectors, like BondsLuxembourg has successfully developed its financial sector in past 30-40 years, in which investment funds and bonds (including green bonds) stand out, as described in Section 5.1. In Macau, in the fourth quarter of 2019, there has been heated discussions that Macau should build a new securities exchange, which should modelled after NASDAQ, and specializes in RMB-denominated securities. However, Macau’s new Chief Executive, Mr. HO Iat Seng, who assumed office on 20 December 2019, wasted no time to point out that Macau is not ready for a new securities exchange as, among other things, its legal infrastructure (like tax law, securities law, and trust law) is not ready.While it may take a number of years to start the stock market, Macau’s bond market has already started in 2018, as described in Section 6.1. As China has been rapidly expanding its bond (including green bond) market, and this trend is expected to
80continue, Macau can specialise itself as an new bond channel between China and the international market, in particular the Portuguese-speaking countries.To have a closer look at the experience of Luxembourg, a team of top economic officials from Macau visited Luxembourg in June 2019. Top MOX executives also visited LuxSE in January 2020. The two exchanges agreed to study the possibility of cross listing of their listed bonds, the implementation of which can significantly expand the size of Macau’s bond market and at the same time broaden its international dimensions.(b) Green ExchangeLuxSE established a green exchange (LGX) to capitalize the growing global trend of green bond issuance. It turned out to be a big success. In Macau, MOX can also consider establishing a green exchange within the exchange to capture the rapidly growing green bond markets of China and elsewhere. With good cooperation with LGX, like cross listing and information exchange, the new green exchange can establish itself as “Green Exchange of China, Belt-and-Road Countries, and Portuguese Specking Countries”. (c) Regulation and SupervisionTo promote healthy growth of Macau security markets, Macau needs to establish an authority as a regulator and supervisor, like The Commission de Surveillance du Secteur Financier (CSSF) in Luxembourg. In Luxembourg, CSSF is a public institution that supervises professionals and products in its financial sector. CSSF supervises, regulates, authorises, informs, carries out checks and issues sanctions, where necessary. It is also responsible for promoting transparency, simplicity and fairness on the financial products and services markets and ensures the application of legislation relating to financial consumer protection and the fight against money laundering and terrorist financing.(d) Foreign and Cross-border WorkersOf the 46,000 people working in Luxembourg’s financial sector, 81% are of non-
81Luxembourg origin. If Macau intends to establish itself as an international financial hub, it needs to allow more foreign financial professionals to work in Macau.Luxembourg is surrounded by three much bigger economies – France, Germany, and Belgium. Luxembourg Chamber of Commerce (2017) pointed out that as of 2015, 45% of Luxembourg’s employment were cross-border workers from its three neighbors.In Macau, with the opening of Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge in 2018, Hong Kong people can work in Macau and return to Hong Kong in evening. Similarly, people from Zhuhai can also work in Macau yet live in Zhuhai. By allowing more cross-border workers from Hong Kong and Zhuhai, as well as open its door to foreign financial professionals, Macau can meet the demand for financial professionals and experienced managers for further development of its financial sector.8. Development of Green Finance in Macau – the Road AheadGreen finance markets have to be built on traditional financial markets. In the bond sector, green bond market has to be built on traditional bond market. The establishment of MOX in 2018 started the first bond exchange in Macau, in which issuance, listing and trading of bonds can be done under the same roof. Cooperation of MOX with LuxSE, with possible cross listing, can significantly increase MOX’s business volume, and extend the exchange’s international dimensions.To further develop Macau’s markets in finance and green finance, the following areas have to be strengthened.8.1 Legal infrastructureAs pointed out by new Chief Executive, Mr. HO Iat Seng, Macau has to update and upgrade its legal infrastructure (like tax law, securities law, and trust law) to help future development of its financial sector. On 25 May 2020, AMCM stated its intention to
82refine Macau’s legal infrastructure for financial business, and the process will take 2 to 3 years.8.2 Regulation and SupervisionTo promote healthy growth of Macau security markets, Macau has to establish an authority as a regulator and supervisor of its securities markets, like The Securities and Future Commission (SFC) in Hong Kong or The Commission de Surveillance du Secteur Financier (CSSF) in Luxembourg, as discussed in Section 7. Consider the relatively small size of Macau’s securities market, the regulator can be housed in AMCM, at least in the early stage.8.3 Market infrastructureIn order to activate the secondary market for bonds, computerized clearing and settlement facilities, Central Securities Depositories (CSD), are needed. Macau’s CSD can also connect with CSDs of other economies, as well as International Central Securities Depositories (ICSDs) so that international investors can participate in Macau’s debt market. ICSDs include Euroclear and Clearstream, the two largest ICSDs in the world, connections to which will allow international investors to hold and settle Macau debt securities.Toward this end, on 27 April 2020, Secretary for Economy and Finance Mr. LEI Wai-nong announced that AMCM will establish a CSD platform, which will resemble Central Moneymarkets Unit (CMU) in Hong Kong. Subsequently, AMCM pointed out that it will take 2 to 3 years to build the new international-grade CSD platform.
838.4 CertificationA key to development of green finance is certification, which means the project has to be certified “green” by a professional third party. In Hong Kong, a large number of green projects are certified by Hong Kong Quality Assurance Agency (HKQAA), which was established by the Hong Kong Government in 1989. In the international community, a well-known certifier is Climate Bonds Initiative (CBI). Consider the relatively small size of Macau’s securities market, it may not be economical to establish a new institution for certification. Macau can use services of HKQAA, CBI, or other well-recognized certifiers.8.5 Professional TalentsThe lack of professional talents is generally regarded as a major obstacle to development of Macau’s financial business. A few moves may help to solve the problem: (i) Professional Accreditation – AMCM can learn from Hong Kong to establish a system of accreditation for professional programs generally taken by practitioners in the financial sector. With such a system in place, Macau can import internationally recognized professional programs from Hong Kong and elsewhere. With a clear accreditation system and hence a ladder for professional development, financial institutions will be more willing to support their employees to enroll in accredited programs, and practitioners will be more willing to enroll in these programs to help to climb up the professional ladder. (ii) Academic-Business Cooperation – Local universities and financial institutions can work together to build degree or professional programs with strong academic foundation plus good real world financial knowledge and/or experience. A good example is a program jointly offered by Macau
84University of Science and Technology (MUST) and Bank of China. (iii) Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area (GBA) Cooperation – Consider its small size and limited resources and experience, Macau can work with universities and training institutes in GBA in providing training programs.8.6 Government Green Bond ProgramIn Hong Kong, the government announced in the 2018 to launch the Government Green Bond Program with a borrowing ceiling of HK$100 billion. Proceeds raised would be used for financing public work projects with environmental benefits. In 2019, the Hong Kong government issued the first batch of US$1 billion (= HK$7.8 billion) of green bonds.Learn from Hong Kong’s experience, the Macau government should consider issue green bonds in Macau, then list the bonds in MOX, and use proceeds raised for financing local public work projects with environmental benefits.Green bond issuance by Macau government can● demonstrate the Government’s support for sustainable development● set a benchmark for green bond products in the market● provide a good example for other potential green issuers ● promote awareness of and Macau’s international profile in green finance8.7 Green Banking in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area (GBA)Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA) has formulated a 3-stage approach to Green Banking in Hong Kong.Stage 1 – raise banking industry’s awareness of green finance, strengthen banks’
85management of climate change risks in their loans and other businesses, and develop an assessment framework and baseline in line with international standards.Stage 2 – consult the industry to set tangible deliverables on green and sustainable finance, and promote green finance reform in the Hong Kong banking industry.Stage 3 – implement relevant measures, and continuously monitor and evaluate the green progress of banks.In Macau, AMCM can draft a similar road-map to green banking in cooperation with Hong Kong and other cities in GBA.Toward the goal of reducing carbon emissions in GBA, a new advisory alliance combining governments and regulators from Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau was formed in 2019 - The Greater Bay Area Green Finance Alliance. The alliance consists of the Hong Kong Green Finance Association, the Guangdong Green Finance Committee, the Shenzhen Green Finance Committee, and the Macau Banking Association.8.8 Green Finance Development: Beyond Green Bonds, Beyond MacauTo date, the main green financial products in Macau are green bonds. However, Macau should learn from other economies’ experience to prepare to develop other green products (like green loans, green funds, green insurance, green stock indices, …. etc.) in the future. In addition, Macau’s vision of green finance development should go beyond Macau, to extend to the Portuguese-speaking Countries as well as countries related to the Belt-Road Initiative.9. ConclusionsSigned by 195 countries in 2015, the Paris Agreement requires signatories to implement their national sustainable development and climate plans. To achieve these
86plans, G20 planned in 2016 to raise US$90 trillion of investments required over the next 15 years. This jump-started global development of green finance.Green bonds are by far the most important green finance product. Global green bond issuance has been growing at an staggering annual average of 47.4% over the 2014-2019 period, reached an annual issuance of US$257.5 billion in 2019.Luxembourg, a small yet very rich economy like Macau, is among the global leaders in green finance development. Hong Kong, Macau’s good neighbor and the other Special Administrative Region of China, has lagged behind in green finance development. But in recent years, Hong Kong has determined to develop this lucrative financial business. China, determined to develop its green finance, is already among the global leaders in the business. As a result, Macau is a well-positioned bridge between China and the international community in development of green finance. This is particularly true with the Portuguese-speaking countries. Towards this goal, Macau can learn from Luxembourg in the followings : to specialize in bonds and green bonds, to establish a green exchange, regulation and supervision, to further welcome foreign and cross-border financial professionals.In addition, Macau should update and upgrade its legal infrastructure, train and import necessary financial professionals, establish a regulatory and supervisory authority for its securities business, to establish an internationally recognised certification scheme. Externally, Macau can seek business opportunities in the Greater Bay Area, Portuguese-speaking countries, and along the Belt-and-Road. Inside Macau, after green bonds, other green finance business, like green loans, green funds and green insurance, can be developed. Finally, to set a benchmark for the local green bond market, the Macau government should consider issuing green bonds and channel capital raised to local projects which help to further transform Macau into a more sustainable, low-carbon and climate-resilient city.
87Reference:1. Chau, I.F. and K. H. Lei (2019), “Green Finance and Its Implications for Macao”, Macao Monetary Research Bulletin, July 2019.2. Chongwa (Macao) Financial Asset Exchange Co Ltd, official web.3. Climate Bonds Initiative, official web.4. Climate Bonds Initiative, “2019 Green Bond Market Summary”, Feb 2020.5. Climate Bonds Initiative, “Hong Kong Green Bond Market Briefing 2019”, May 20206. G20 Green Finance Study Group (2016), “G20 Green Finance Synthesis Report”7. The Global Green Finance Index 5, official web.8. Luxembourg Chamber of Commerce (2017), “Luxembourg Economy”, Sep 2017.9. Luxembourg Stock Exchange, “LuxSE enters new market in Macau”, Press Release, 13 Jan 2020.10. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Finance Initiative (2018), “Luxembourg Sustainable Finance Roadmap”, Dec 2018.
88淺談疫後澳門推動發展夜間經濟余渭恆澳門經濟學會理事一、前言2020 年新冠疫情對澳門經濟和民生造成重大衝擊,疫情影響澳門旅客人次博彩收入,加上配合特區政府防控疫情措施常態化,澳門今年的本地生產總值必大幅下跌。隨著疫情日漸受控,澳門社會各界人士積極為疫後提振澳門經濟建言獻策,有序恢復澳門經濟,開拓澳門經濟適度多元,都是當前澳門社會需解決的問題。隨著全球社會經濟發展,“日出而作、日入而息”的傳統作息模式早已有所改變,夜晚已成為城市人群消費的重要時段。近年來夜間經濟創造的經濟動能開始受到全球各大城市政府的重視,蓬勃興起的夜間經濟意義重大,不僅能拉長經濟活動時間,拉動本地居民的內需,延長外地旅客的停留時間,還能帶動經濟發展,同時提高城市設施的綜合利用率,增加相關行業的就業崗位和創業機會。澳門作為世界旅遊休閒中心,疫後積極推動夜間經濟將可以促進城市消費和擴大增長點,並有助澳門經濟適度多元發展。本文將會以澳門疫後發展的視角,探討推動發展夜間經濟的可能性及可行性。二、夜間經濟的概述(一)夜間經濟Bianchini(1995)提出夜間經濟(night-time economy)一詞是泛指多種行業在夜間的經濟活動行為,當中酒精和休閒只屬於其中一部分。Roberts and
93運動休閒也是構建夜間經濟的重要一環,積極發展夜間健康養生運動,鼓勵室內籃球館、健身房、瑜珈中心、滑冰場、保齡球館、桌球室、VR遊戲中心等創新夜間服務方式,開展各類“輕時尚”的體育運動。過往居民常常詬病澳門缺乏公共體育設施,但疫情對現屆澳門政府財政收入有所影響,比起花大筆公帑去興建新的體育場館,政府應當按實際需求去優化現有體育設施,現階段鼓勵在現有的設施上再利用,以倫敦為例,薩默塞特宮(Somerset House)是當地最受歡迎的多用途公共場所, 這棟新古典主義建築既是政府大樓,又是學術建築,同時也是音樂廳、時尚場所和美術館。在冬季的夜晚,它的溜冰場更可變成舞池。善用這類能作多用途的公共場所,可節約用地成本,把場所的效能發揮得淋漓盡致。澳門可適量開放一些高校、體育場的閒置空間供公眾使用,博企的大型場館也可以在閒置時作多功能用途,如改成室內籃球館、滑冰場等,由於疫情原因,“水舞台′暫時在休演,它的劇院水池也轉身變成了自由潛水體驗的場所,可採用這種因地制宜、破舊立新的方式,善用空間資源去發展夜間運動休閒產業。(二)政策支援推動提振夜間經濟需要政府政策配合參與,以倫敦市政府為例,2016年任命“夜間沙皇”(Night Czar)的職位,所謂“夜間沙皇”是類似於其他城市的“夜間市長”一職,是專門要實現倫敦作為24小時城市的願景,負責研究及建議倫敦如何發展成為全球夜間經濟最領先城市,並推動倫敦夜間經濟發展和多樣性。在2017年10月更成立了夜間經濟活動委員會(London Night Time Com-mission),該委員會的成員來自不同領域,具有相關豐富經驗知識,包括商業、酒店、娛樂、交通、治安等方面。澳門土地面積小,空間使用受到制約,發展夜間經濟要協調夜間經濟活動區域和居民生活區域兩者之間可能出現的矛盾。政府主導市場參與,要先從頂層規劃入手,根據不同區域的環境和條件,做好功能定位,需要設立專業團隊規劃管理夜間經濟活動,夜間經濟活動專責小組應由政府相關部門的主管人員牽頭,涵蓋專家學者、商業、旅遊、娛樂、新媒體等方面,具有豐富專業知識
95四、結語疫後澳門需要加快步伐提振經濟,夜間經濟發展有助澳門經濟活動時間拉長,吸引旅客延長在澳的經濟活動時間,同時也能擴大本澳居民內需,釋放居民的消費潛力。發展夜間經濟對於促進澳門產業多元發展亦大有幫助,通過餐飲酒吧、文藝體驗、運動休閒、旅遊娛樂、夜間購物等活動,繁榮夜間經濟,添增夜間紅利。同時,夜間經濟也為居民提供了更多創業、就業的機會,帶動相關行業的成長,給中小企業提供更多商機,增強澳門經濟發展的新動力。澳門需優化現有的夜間經濟活動和產品,並打造具有澳門特色的夜間經濟活動,設置專業專責的團隊規劃管理澳門夜間經濟活動,以及完善基礎配套設施和公共服務。主力發展綜合型集聚區將是夜間經濟集聚區的未來趨勢,進一步豐富業態內容,實現產業空間集聚化發展,打造具標誌性、差異性的城市夜間生活服務和產品,全方位激發澳門城市的活力。參考文獻:1. 澳門特別行政區政府旅遊局:《澳門旅遊業發展總體規劃》,2017年9月。2. 顧相偉、莊金鋒:〈澳門世界旅遊休閑中心建設與博彩業轉型發展〉,《“一國兩制”研究》,總第31期(2017年),頁152-158。3. 普華永道思略特:《夜間經濟激活城市“FUN”生活》,2019年6月。4. 澳門特別行政區政府旅遊局:《優化於夜間舉行的旅遊活動和產品的研究分析─摘要》,2019年6月。5. Bianchini, F., (1995). Night cultures, night economies. Planning Practice & Research, 10 (2), 121-126.6. GLA Economics., (2018, Nov). London at night: an evidence based for a 24-hour city Executive report. 7. Roberts, M., & Turner, C., (2005). Conflicts of liveability in the 24-hour city: learning from 48 hours in the life of London’s soho. Journal of Urban Design, 10 (2), 171-193.8. Shaw. R., (2014). Beyond night-time economy: Affective atmospheres of the urban night. Geofo-rum, 51(1) 87-95.9. The Mayor’s Office of Media and Entertainment., (2019, Jan). NYC’s Nightlife Economy: Impact, Assets, and Opportunities.
105指出,大部分國家開始以人類發展作為衡量人力資本的新指標,國際勞工組織認為需要同時考慮勞動力市場上能夠使人力資本產生變化的因素15 (Human Development Report,201616 ),其中最為關注的是社會資本(Bassani2008)。六、總結根據文章中指的人力資本對於勞動者個人薪酬,勞動力市場歧視(薪酬差異)和融入的問題中,可以發現人力資本存量是勞動者個人職業生涯發展的重要元素之一。除此之外,近年還有其他學者開始研究定性收益問題。所以本文希望未來可以研究社會資本勞動力薪酬的貢獻。由於人力和社會資本兩種變數均是可以經過時間的積累,形成的一種不可轉移的價值,這兩種價值正正可以促使其薪酬的變化。文獻:1. 聯合國人類發展報告:http://hdr.undp.org/en/2016-report2. Ameri, M., Schur, L., Adya, M., Bentley, S., Mckay, P., Kruse, D. (2015). “The Disability Employment Puzzle: A Field Experiment on Employer Hiring Behavior.” NBER Working Paper No. 21560.3. Altonji, J. G. and Williams, N. (1995), “The Effects of Labor Market Experience, Job Seniority and Job Mobility on Wage Growth”, NBER Working Paper Series 4133.4. Altonji, J. G. and Shakotko, R. A. (1987), “Do Wages Rise With Job Seniority”, Review of Economic Studies, pp. 437-459.5. Altonji, J. G., & Pierret, C. R. (2001). “Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination”. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 1, pp. 313-350.6. Alan, K. M. A., Altman, Y., and Roussel, J. (2008). “Employee Training Needs and Perceived Value of Training in the Pearl River Delta of China: A Human Capital Development Approach”. Journal of European Industrial Training, vol. 32, No.1, pp.19-31.15 在人力資本計量的新指標中,包括定量和定性,一般定量指標是預期壽命、成人識字率、毛入學率和國內生產總值等等的子變數為基礎,定性指標則是社會資本。16 聯合國人類發展報告:http://hdr.undp.org/en/2016-report
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1412018 年粵港澳大灣區城市研發投入科研經費(億,人民幣)科研經費佔GDP比深圳 1161.93 4.80%廣州 600.17 2.63%東莞 236.32 2.85%佛山 254.77 2.56%中山 61.12 1.68%惠州 94.19 2.30%珠海 92.15 3.16%江門 62.63 2.16%肇慶 22.72 1.03%香港 215 0.86%澳門 7.8 0.20%大灣區 2801 2.4%二、澳洲智庫(2Thinknow)全球創新城市指數162項因素評測全球各城市的創新經濟表現,並依據各城市的創新能力,從高至低依次劃分為創新核心城市(Nexus)、創新樞紐城市(Hub)、創新節點城市(Node)和創新發跡城市(Upstart)四類城市。據澳洲智庫(2Thinknow)2019年全球創新城市指數反映,澳門和珠海分別在全球500座城市中居第381和383位,如果在162座亞洲城市中排名為第85位和87位。三、2018年全球創新指數(Global Innovation Index )G I I評定標準包括機構( I n s t i t u t i o n s)、人力資本和研究(H u m a n 創新發跡城市創新節點城市創新樞紐城市創新核心城市